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Draft - Code of Practice for handling fresh fruit and vegetables in refrigerated shipping containers

Code of Practice for handling fresh fruit and vegetables in refrigerated shipping containers

Clicks Title Below For Read

Abbreviations and useful acronyms
Glossary of terms
1. Introduction 
2. Produce quality factors 
3. Container description 
4. Measurement of produce temperature 
5. Temperature monitoring during transit
6. Post harvest requirements for export produce
7. Packaging 
8. Container Selection
9. Stowage 
10. Transport terminal and ship operation
11. Brief checklist for shippers when planning a refrigerated cargo shipment
12. Brief checklist for shippers before and during loading refrigerated cargo

Abbreviations and useful acronyms

Abbreviations and useful acronyms

%    Percentage
AFAM    Automated Fresh Air Management
ARS    Agricultural Research Service (USDA)
CA    Controlled Atmosphere
CAN    Customs Authority Number
CFM    Cubic Feet per Minute
CFR    Code of Federal Register (USA)
CMDG    Citrus Market Development Group
CMF    Citrus Marketing Forum
CO    Carbon Monoxide
CO2    Carbon dioxide
CODEX    Codex Alimentarius
COMPILE    Customs On Line Method of Preparing from Invoices Lodgeable Entries
COU    Clip on Unit
CRN    Customs Reference Number
CSIRO    Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
ECD    Export Condition Database
ECN    Export Clearance Number
ECO    Export Control (Processed Food) Orders
ECS    Automatic Export Certification
EDI    Electronic Data Interchange
EICON    Export/Import Conditions System (Now ICON)
EIS    Export Inspection Service (now AQIS)
EP    Export Permit
EPA    Environmental Protection Agency
EXDOC    AQIS Electronic Export Documentation System
EXIT    Export Integrated System
FAE    Fresh Air Exchange
FAK    Freight All Kinds
FC    Fumigation Certificate
FCL    Full Container Load
FOI    Freedom of Information
FSIS    Food Safety and Inspection Service (USDA)
GPPPO    Grains, Plant and Plant Products Orders
HC    High Cube
ICON    Import Conditions Database
ICPM    Interim Commission on Phytosanitary Matters
IMAP    International Market Access Program
IMO    International Maritime Organisation
IMO Class    International Maritime Organisation Classification for dangerous goods
IP    Import Permit
IPPC    International Plant Protection Convention
ISO    International Organisation for Standardisation
ISPM    International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures
LCL    Less than Container Load
MA    Modified Atmosphere
O2    Oxygen
P.O.D.    Port of Discharge
P.O.L.    Port of Loading
PC    Phytosanitary Certificate
PMS    Plant/Product Monitoring Scheme
PPQ    Plant Protection and Quarantine (US PPQ Treatment Manual)
PRA    Pre-Receival Advice (electronic)
PTI    Pre Trip Inspection
QA    Quality Assurance
QC    Quality Control
RFP    Request for Permit (to export)
SCA    Sea Cargo Automation
Temp.    Temperature
TQC    Total Quality Control
TQM    Total Quality Management
UN No    United Nations Number
USDA    United States Department of Agriculture
VBS    Vehicle Booking System
VFD    Variable Frequency Drive
W/C    Watt per degree Celsius

Glossary of terms

Glossary of terms

Absolute Humidity

Actual weight of water vapour in a parcel of air and is expressed in

grams per cubic metre. The greater the air temperature the more water vapour that it can absorb before becoming saturated 

Anti - Chamber

This  is  a  chamber  or  facility,  which  ensures  that  cool-room conditions  exist  in  the  transfer  area  when  cargo  is  loaded  from storage into the container.

Air-bagging

Bags filled with air are used in containers that are not full of cargo to fill large gaps to prevent cargo movement without restricting airflow. 

Broken Stowage
Unfilled spaces throughout the container.

Controlled Atmosphere
The gas mixture surrounding the cargo is controlled so that its composition is as desired

Dew Point Temperature

Temperature at which the air has to be cooled for the water vapour to condense out into water droplets. It is also known as the saturation temperature, and is dependent on the absolute humidity

Chock

Block or wedge used to prevent movement of cargo within the container

Dunnage

Timber utilised to provide space within the stow of cargo to permit ventilation.

Hydro-cooling
A process in which the produce is rapidly cooled after harvesting by spraying, drenching or immersion with cold water

Kazoo
The nozzle on the container drain plug.

Modified Atmosphere
Gases are removed or added to create an atmospheric composition,
which is different from that of air around the commodity

Partlow Chart
This is a clock-based analogue temperature recording circular chart. 
It traces and records the delivery or return air temperature within the 
container

Relative Humidity

Ratio between the amount of water vapour in the air and the amount it  can  contain  at  that  temperature.  It  is  usually  expressed  as  a percentage

Senescence
Ageing of the commodity

Set Point
Temperature setting on the controller of the refrigeration unit

Shrink Wrapping
Application of a protective synthetic plastic wrapping material to unitise slip sheeted and/or palletised loads, improving handling and protecting the goods from shifting during transit

Slip Sheets

A thin corrugated fibreboard or plastic sheets used in place of a pallet to maximise space utilisation. Slip sheeting requires special forklift attachments.

Stowage Factor

Volume occupied by unit weight of cargo. Usually expressed as cubic metres per tonne. It does not take into account any space, which may be lost due to broken stowage

Sweat or Condensation

Is formed when the water vapour in the air condenses out into water droplets  when the air is  cooled  below the dewpoint. The water droplets may be deposited onto the container structure or onto the cargo and packages.

Vacuum-cooling

This is  a post harvest/pre-shipment process, which relies on the cooling effect  of  water  evaporation on or within the product to reduce temperature.  It  requires  a  vacuum chamber to lower the boiling point of the moisture in the product

Ventilate

To allow fresh air to circulate throughout the cargo in the container 

1. Introduction

1. Introduction 

Growers, packers, exporters and shipping companies have a common interest in providing the best possible quality produce to export markets. Quality cannot be improved during handling and transport, but the rate at which it is lost can be reduced by following the recommendations in this Code of Practice. 

Each particular overseas market and/or customer has product specifications, for example, the size, colour and maturity of produce. Thus produce should be grown with the intention of supplying a particular customer, and the harvesting, grading and packing should be carried out in accordance with those specifications. 

Shippers and consignees should be aware of the maturity indices for chilled horticultural produce. Whilst there are procedures for retarding the ripening process, it is not possible to reverse it.

Exporters need to be committed to supplying high quality produce on a regular basis. 

There are various models, makes and ages of refrigerated containers in use. When exporting temperature and time sensitive commodities, exporters should liaise accordingly with the shipping company to ensure a container fit for purpose is supplied that is capable of operating to desired and mutually agreed requirements. 

Maintaining proper conditions during shipment from the packing shed to the overseas market is an important factor in minimising quality loss. 

Trial shipments of a new fruit or vegetable will require substantial co-operation between all parties to ensure satisfactory outturn of cargo at destination. 

Shippers, exporters, carriers and agents should be aware that where an in transit cold sterilization or quarantine process is required the temperatures and other related procedures in this manual should be disregarded. The carriage of ITCS cargoes is a complex process which must be performed in 
accordance with the protocols agreed between the Governments and Quarantine bodies of the exporting and importing countries. There is no attempt in this manual to explain these protocols because they vary from country to country, from cargo to cargo and transit time to transit time. The 
policies and protocols as agreed and nominated by the carrier/and or its agents in conjunction with the respective government bodies must apply throughout the total post harvest to final consignee supply chain. 

Problems could occur in the carriage of containerised reefer cargo due to the lack of adequate and accurate carriage instructions issued by shippers. It is extremely important that rational procedural precautions are routinely adopted and instructions are always given in writing to all parties in the transport chain. Shippers must ensure that all documentation shows the Set Point temperature. It is recommended that the information contained in the electronic Pre-Receival Advice should be made available to all parties in the transport chain. 

The Shipper is in the best position to know the optimum temperature and container vent settings (or Fresh Air Exchange rates) for the carriage of his product and his reefer instructions should be followed unless they are obviously wrong or raise a natural uncertainty. Carriage instructions given to a shipping company must be complete, adequate and accurate to avoid the risk of damage to the cargo. It must be noted that the same produce from different origins may require different carriage requirements. 

Temperature is considered to be measured and stated in Degrees Celsius [°C], while Fresh Air Exchange rates should be stated in cubic metres per hour (CMH) for the purpose of this Code. Any variance from this practice must be highlighted to all parties in the chain to ensure that there is no misunderstanding. 

Each link/carrier in the transport chain must pass on the carriage requirements to subsequent links/ carriers. 

It must be stressed that the only temperature, which can be controlled is the ‘Set Point’. The Set Point corresponds to air delivery temperature for chilled cargo. The term ‘carriage temperature’ therefore, cannot be used in carriage instructions. 

The successful delivery of horticultural produce from origin to destination in refrigerated containers is also dependent on the maintenance of suitable storage and packing conditions during transport.

The quality of the produce can be maintained only if each link in the chain continuously maintains the integrity of the chain. 

1.1. Marine insurance 

Shippers and Consignees should be aware that the Contract of Carriage in the Bill of Lading, whilst placing certain responsibilities on the Carrier also places liability on Shippers/Consignees for certain events.

It  is  strongly recommended that shippers/consignees acquaint themselves with these liabilities and make provision for them in their insurance arrangements. 

In particular shippers/consignees should look at their liability under the following: 

• General Average 
• Damage/loss to container whilst in their care
• Damage or injury caused due to improper packing
• Failure to disclose hazardous or dangerous cargo.

2. Produce quality factors

2. Produce quality factors 

2.1. Respiration of fruit and vegetables

2.1.1 Fresh fruit and vegetables are alive. They respire (breathe) by taking up oxygen (O2) and giving off carbon dioxide (CO2) and heat. The carbon dioxide released during respiration may induce storage disorders in some produce if the concentration is allowed to build up in the surrounding air. The maximum concentration of CO2 for some fruits is given in Appendix 1, Table 1 under ventilation. Fresh fruit and vegetables also transpire i.e. they lose water. After harvest, losses caused by respiration and transpiration cannot be replenished. Thus fruit and vegetables are perishable and the higher the rate of respiration or transpiration the higher the rate of senescence. 

The rate of deterioration depends on the environmental conditions following harvest. Respiration and transpiration rates fall as the temperature is lowered. For most produce, the respiration rate also falls if the O2 level in the surrounding air is lowered and the CO2 level is raised. Using changed atmosphere conditions is called Controlled Atmosphere (CA) or Modified Atmosphere (MA) storage. The respiration rate of fruit and vegetables can be reduced (to extend the shelf life) by altering the composition of the air in the surrounding atmosphere. This can be achieved by reducing the oxygen content, increasing the nitrogen content or a combination of both. 

Modified atmosphere packaging (semi-permeable packaging), allows the fruit to breathe, but as the carbon dioxide level increases, respiration is slowed; the production of ethylene falls and the ripening process is slowed down. The difficulty with modifying or controlling the atmosphere is that prolonged exposure to high levels of carbon dioxide may affect the colour and/or flavour of the fruit. It is important that the set limits for oxygen and carbon dioxide are not exceeded. A very low level of oxygen or a high level of carbon dioxide would cause suffocation of the fruit (refer to Table 1&2 in 
Appendix 1). 

Alteration of temperature and atmosphere provide the main ways of reducing deterioration rates and prolonging storage life of produce. CA systems are designed to maintain an atmosphere different from normal, usually with low oxygen and increased carbon dioxide contents. This enhances the storage life of some produce, when used in conjunction with refrigeration. CAUTION: CA could be fatal to humans due to the low oxygen content. CA compartments must be appropriately marked and must be adequately ventilated prior to entry. 


2.1.2. Fruit and vegetables vary in their rate of respiration and transpiration and in their response to low temperatures and changed gas compositions; this variation depends on a number of factors including growing conditions, variety and maturity. There is no single, ideal condition that is suitable for storage of all varieties of produce. 

2.1.3. The heat released by respiring produce depends upon the type of produce, its maturity, and its temperature. Respiration heat varies over a large range and must be removed throughout storage and transport.

2.2. Ethylene 

2.2.1. All fruits release small amounts of ethylene during growth and some release much larger amounts during ripening.  Excess ethylene emissions can accelerate the ripening process of produce. CA storage reduces the rate of ethylene production and sensitivity to ethylene of some produce. Ripening can be induced in some fruit (eg. bananas) by introducing ethylene into the surrounding air. Ethylene can increase the rate of deterioration of some produce and may cause off-flavours. Thus produce that is sensitive to ethylene, (eg. bananas, avocados and kiwi fruit) must not be stored or transported with produce that release ethylene (refer to Section: 9 Stowage). Leafy vegetables are particularly sensitive to ethylene, with the leaves turning yellow in colour, russet spotting and abscission occurring with prolonged exposure. Cucumbers also turn yellow in colour and become soft. Ethylene in the atmosphere can also be removed by absorption with activated carbon, potassium permanganate, or catalytic oxidisation. Ethylene must be removed from storage and transport enclosures by venting or scrubbing. Exhaust gases from internal combustion engines may contain levels of ethylene that can cause damage to produce. Therefore the vents (air freshening devices) fitted to integral containers should be left closed during inland transport periods. 

A matter of considerable importance, which affects the ripening process of fruit, is the time delay between harvesting and transfer to an environment where this process can be controlled. The atmospheres in which fruits are kept or carried have a significant effect on the ripening process. The atmosphere must be regulated to control this process, as per the client’s requirements allowing the fruit to arrive un-ripened at its destination. The presence of O2 allows the production of ethylene, which in turn activates the ripening process. Ventilation to remove the ethylene from the atmosphere or controlling the atmosphere by replacing O2 with CO2 is the methods used to control this process. 

2.3. Temperature

The amount of deterioration of quality of produce is a function of both time and temperature. A small drop in temperature at high temperatures gives only a small reduction in the rate of deterioration, but a small drop in temperature (even a drop of 1°C) at low temperatures can give a large reduction in the rate of deterioration. For example, 5 days storage of cabbage at 5°C gives the same amount of deterioration due to respiration as 9 days storage at 0°C. 

2.4. Chilling injury 

Chilling Injury: A physiological disorder caused by low temperature stress, causing sensitive produce to discolour or reduce their physical appearance. 

2.4.1. Produce exposed to temperatures below a critical level (dependent on the commodity, but above the freezing temperature) could suffer from ‘Chilling Injury’. The degree of damage is dependent on the sensitivity of the produce, the duration of exposure and temperature. Some produce suffers 'chilling injury’ if stored at temperatures below about 12°C. The tolerance of such sensitive produce to low temperatures varies widely between different species and varieties, eg. bananas will develop chilling injury below 12°C. This can limit the extent to which reduction in temperature can be used to extend storage life.

For some of this produce, the reduced deterioration as a result of low temperature storage must be balanced against the risk of damage due to chilling injury. For example, with oranges, an increased deterioration rate at higher temperatures may be due to fungal or bacterial decay as well as that caused by a higher respiration rate, and it may be preferable to risk chilling injury and transport at a lower temperature. 

The transport of some chilling sensitive produce below their (minimum long term) chilling temperature is possible provided the combination of transport temperature and supply chain duration means that all the produce will be sold and consumed before the chilling injury is noticeable. This  strategy involves some risks and requires a very good understanding of the produce being shipped, the duration of the supply chain and the rate of development of chilling injury symptoms that will impact on marketability of the product. 

3. Container description

3. Container description 

3.1. Power supply & plug 

All refrigerated containers utilised in the Australian trade operate on 440 volt/ 60hz and onboard vessels they operate on 415 volt/ 50hz within Australian ports. 

The power cable is fitted with an ISO standard CEE-17 plug. Care must be taken to ensure that plug is not damaged (cable length - 18 metres). 

If the safety plug is damaged or tampered with there is a possibility of electrocution or fire if used incorrectly; if a damaged plug is encountered, do not plug into power & advise the Shipping Company of the situation immediately. 

3.1.1. A container used for the refrigerated shipping of produce is essentially an insulated box to which a supply of refrigerated air is attached. Most containers used from Malaysia have external dimensions of;
6.06 (L) x 2.438 (W) x 2.438 or 2.591 (H) m.
12.192 (L) x 2.438 (W) x 2.591 or 2.895 (H) m.

3.1.2. An integral container has a refrigeration unit built into the end of the container. The unit has its own temperature control system and fans to circulate the refrigerated air. The refrigeration unit is fitted with some form of visible temperature indicating devices and all containers have Temperature Recording device (s). Although there are still many containers in existence with “Partlow” or similar circular 31 day chart recording equipment these are now being phased out and replaced by electronic data recorders which generally need to be electronically downloaded to provide voyage carriage temperature and unit operational, alarm and performance history. Some containers are fitted with both a chart and electronic recorders but this is because some owners elect to have both, to allow for industry transition from chart recorders to more modern technology. Those packers, shippers’ freight depots and carriers who have chart operations included in their procedures or practices should be aware of this technology change and progression. 

3.1.3. In integral containers, depending on the design of the unit, the refrigerated air is supplied either at floor level or at ceiling level; the containers are said to have either bottom air delivery or top air delivery, respectively. The greater percentage of integral containers currently in service has bottom air delivery. 

Examples of different machinery types with common function but differently arranged venting mechanisms, operating devices, reefer machinery and evaporator access 

arrangements.

Typical internal view showing Airflow floor and front bulkhead with bottom air delivery and top air return panels. Also shows position of maximum cargo height line when container is used for refrigerated or temp controlled cargo

(usually 100 mm from top in 6M container and 150/200mm for 12M container).

3.1.4. The unit attached to a container is designed only to maintain produce temperature and cannot reduce produce temperature quickly. Thus, ideally packers should ensure that produce is within 1°C of the desired carriage temperature before loading into the container and the unit should be placed and kept on power as soon as possible after stowing of the produce is complete (Refer to Table 1 & 2 in Appendix 1). 

NOTE: The refrigeration units should never be run with the container doors open, except where the container is sealed into an anti-chamber loading dock.  If left open, condensation and moisture will be drawn into the container and across the evaporator coils.  This will cause the evaporator coil to ice up and possibly cause the reefer container to malfunction and damage to the cargo. Condensation may also form on the cargo and packaging, resulting in ‘cargo sweat’, which could weaken any fibreboard packaging. 

3.1.5. Except in cold climates, the temperature of the circulating refrigerated air rises as the heat leaking into the container or generated by the produce is absorbed by the air. Thus, the temperature of the return air is warmer than the delivery air; the difference is normally 1 to 2°C for chilled cargo (lower for hard frozen cargo), but can be as high as 3°C and higher during initial temperature pull down of loads. (This excludes the temperature rise of the air due to heat from the circulating fans, as this temperature rise is external to the cargo space). 

3.1.6. Containers (6 m long) have nominal heat leakage rates of 20 to 30 W/C (Watts per degree Celsius temperature difference across the container walls). At ambient temperatures above about 20°C the major heat load on the refrigeration unit is heat leakage through the container walls and consequently the major portion of the circulating air should flow over the internal surfaces of the container rather than through the stow. 

3.1.7. Produce is not at a uniform temperature throughout a refrigerated container. The coldest produce is near the point where the refrigerated air enters the container. The position of the warmest produce depends on the type of container, but is commonly near the doors (at the top of the reefer around 700 mm from the door). The spread in temperature depends on the ambient temperature, the total air circulation rate and its distribution, the temperature uniformity of the air delivered to the container, and the respiration heat of the produce; the distribution is determined by the basic design of the circulating system and by the stowage of the produce. 

3.1.8. The temperature controller on the integral or clip-on unit may be controlled from a sensor placed either in the air entering or the air leaving the container cargo space; the unit is said to operate under delivery air or return air control respectively. 3.1.9 With modern integral containers fitted with electronic/programmable controllers, it is normal for equipment to control delivery air for chilled cargoes, eg. horticultural produce, (and control return air for frozen commodities, eg. hard frozen meat). 

3.1.10. Electronically controlled refrigeration units have 3, 6, 12 or 24 hourly defrost cycles (that can be set on the control setting), which last for approximately 30 to 40 minutes. An example of a regular 6-hour defrost recording on a Partlow chart can be observed in Figure 2. The periodic defrost cycles prevent ice build up on the surface of the evaporator coils, which can restrict the airflow through the coils and therefore reduce the refrigeration capacity of the container (see Figure 2). 

NOTE: A normal defrost cycle does not heat the cargo, only the evaporator coil and the immediate air chamber is heated. During this time there is no airflow to interior of the container and therefore no measurable effect to the cargo. 

Views of typical control, operating and monitoring panel and temperature displays 

Figure 1: Airflow through evaporator coil

Figure 2: Partlow chart recording return air of a chilled commodity 

with normal 6 hourly defrost cycle. 

Typical chart recording devices (now being replaced with electronic data recorders) 

3.2. Pre Trip Inspection (PTI) 

All refrigerated containers are inspected prior to being released to the shipper/packer or his trucker. The refrigeration units integral to containers or in clip-on units, as well as the associated temperature controllers, are checked for proper operation before being despatched for cargo packing - this is referred to as a 'pre-trip'. This procedure is an extensive technical check of the reefer machinery and the container. Technicians use pre-determined comprehensive checklists to ensure that the container is clean, undamaged and that the reefer machinery is in ideal running condition. Technicians conduct PTI in accordance with shipping company requirements and procedures. The Pre-Trip Inspection (PTI) of refrigeration equipment also includes a check of the temperature control/recording instrumentation using an electronic digital thermometer that has been calibrated at 0°C in an ice/water slurry. It is important to ensure the drains, collection pan and evaporator coil are cleaned and free of debris during the pre-trip inspection (PTI) of the reefer machinery. At least one defrost cycle should be completed in accordance with the machinery manufacturers instructions at the time of PTI. On completion of the pre-trip service a decal is attached to the machinery end of the container clearly indicating the date of checking. The validity of a pre-trip service is commonly regarded as current for one month from the date entered on the pre-trip decal (different shipping companies may have differing validity periods). 

As the intended use of the container is not usually known when the PTI is carried out, the Set Point may be left on a temperature to suit the carriage of Hard Frozen or Chilled cargo (eg. -18° C or 0°C).  The Set Point Temperature must be checked before the container unit is placed on power. 

On mechanical temperature controllers (Partlow Controller or separate dial setter) the setting can be verified before placing the machinery on power. Electronic temperature controllers may require the machinery to be placed on power, unless the temperature controller is fitted with its own power source. The majority of containers have simple clear starting instructions. 

3.3. Set Point 

The Set Point is the temperature setting on the controller of the refrigeration unit. For units with delivery air control, the supply temperature will be 0.5 to 1.5°C below the desired carriage temperature. For units with return air control, the set-point temperature will be approximately +2°C the desired carriage temperature, providing the cargo has been pre-cooled to the desired carrying 
temperature. For produce with a recommended storage temperature at or below 0°C, the set point may need to be set at a higher value than the storage temperature to avoid possible chilling injury or freezing of the produce; the need to do this depends on the type of container and control unit that is used. It is essential that container operators know what kind of equipment is under their control, as it is their responsibility to provide a container suitable for the produce to be packed. 

(See also paragraph 8.1.3; shippers responsibility to give all relevant details of product to be carried in order that the shipping company can make available a container suited for the carriage of that product) 

3.4. Fresh Air Exchange

Ethylene and CO2 levels in containers are regulated by ventilating with vents (air freshening) - it is essential that the outside air is free of ethylene (Note: Vents should be closed during road travel to prevent ethylene contamination from vehicle exhausts). Ventilation is achieved by opening vents that are fitted across the fan; the fan pressure causes fresh air to flow in one vent and air containing the evolved gases to flow out the other vent. All containers used for fresh produce must be fitted with a means of ventilation. Loading cargo above the maximum ‘red line’ height can affect fresh air exchange). Note that CA containers operate with these vents closed at all times. Some MA 
containers (such as AFAMI) operate with electronically controlled vents to regulate gas conditions around the cargo. Loading cargo above the maximum ‘red line’ height can affect fresh air exchange). Ventilation should be undertaken to keep the CO2 level below the maximum specified in Tables 1 & 2, in Appendix 1. Excess ventilation is of no value to the produce and can cause excessive amounts of water to condense on the evaporator coils. If this water turns into ice it may restrict the airflow, thereby increasing the temperature spread in the stow. (See Section 3.1.10).

 Figure 3: diagrams of the various vent-setting controls. 

Care must be taken to ensure that the units for settings Fresh Air Exchange are not misread. Containers may be calibrated for Cubic Metres per Hour (CMH), Cubic Feet per Minute (CFM) or as a percentage (%) refer to Figure 3. All units are rated at 60hz for onboard vessels but while on shore the units run at 50hz, which may reduce the set amount of fresh air exchange by up to 23%.

3.5. Controlled Atmosphere (CA) and Modified Atmosphere (MA or AFAM+) 

Controlled or modified atmospheres normally are not provided in general refrigerated containers. In suitable containers, it is possible to provide CA or MA conditions (at additional cost) on a one-trip basis. For almost all CA/MA systems now in use the containers must meet a stringent gas-tightness specification and are usually fitted with a plastic sheet inside the doors to avoid the possible problems of leaking door seals. There are some containers especially designed for CA transport. CA containers allow the controlling of the container environment more precisely. Harvested fruit and vegetables continue to breathe until they are consumed or destroyed by decay or desiccation. Under normal circumstances these factors determine the lifespan of the product. The ripening process may be decelerated and the lifespan of a commodity may be prolonged by keeping the produce at optimal temperature coupled with the most effective blend of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.  Unlike CA and MA units, Automated Fresh Air Management (AFAM)+ uses fresh air exchanges controlled by sensors, which regularly read the O2 and CO2 levels inside the container. If the atmosphere is not at the pre-set AFAM+ level, the vent is adjusted mechanically to achieve the required levels. 

3.6. Relative humidity 

The quality of horticultural produce is directly affected by the relative humidity of the surrounding air. If the humidity is too low, the produce may wilt and shrivel, whilst if it is too high the produce may develop mould. There have been technical advances made in recent years to build refrigerated containers with advanced humidity control systems. Most require a relative humidity of around 90% to be maintained and this is maintained by the transpiration of the produce, when the ventilation and temperature controls of the container are set at an optimal level. Modern containers with advanced humidity control systems are equipped with a water source, a pump and a water atomiser that 
introduces moisture into the container’s air stream. Some reefer containers are fitted with de-humidification equipment, which can reduce the relative humidity of the container to a level of between 50 and 80%. 

3.7. Container damage 

Every precaution must be taken to ensure that the container and its machinery is not damaged during transport or packing. While the use of freight containers substantially reduces the physical hazards to which cargo is exposed to, improper or careless packing of cargoes may result in serious and costly damage to the container. 

The front end of the container houses the machinery, its evaporator and the air circulation system. This machinery is protected by grilles and reasonably robust panels, which can withstand normal wear and tear associated with acceptable methods of loading.  However, the impact from careless stowing 
(improper handling - such as throwing of cargo) could damage and distort the panels and machinery. Damage to the insulating envelope will result in loss of thermal efficiency leading to a reduction in insulating properties. 

NOTE: Great care must be taken if forklifts are utilised to stow a refrigerated container. Adequate protection must be provided, in way of plywood or steel sheet flooring of appropriate strength, prior to utilising forklifts or other heavy equipment within the reefer container, to ensure that the ribs on the floor are not damaged.

4. Measurement of produce temperature

4. Measurement of produce temperature 

Temperature is considered to be measured and stated in Degrees Celsius (°C ) for the purpose of this Code. Any variance from this practice must be highlighted to all parties in the chain to ensure that there is no misunderstanding. 

It is most important to bear in mind that chilled fresh produce can be extensively damaged by low temperatures, either by freezing or by chilling injury, if subjected to temperatures below those usually experienced in the growing area. 

4.1. Thermometer requirements

4.1.1. All cool store and packing shed operators should possess thermometers suitable for measuring produce temperatures. Note that not all electronic thermometers are suitable. 

4.1.2. Electronic thermometers should have a resolution of 0.1°C and be capable of measuring temperatures in the range -5°C to +45°C with an accuracy of ±0.5°C; when measuring a temperature of 0°C, the calibrated accuracy should be ±0.2°C. 

4.1.3. Electronic thermometers should be protected from condensation when taken out of cool rooms. If the thermometer case is not sealed, the thermometer may be placed in a plastic bag. 

4.1.4. Electronic thermometers should maintain their calibrated accuracy to ±0.3°C when taken in and out of cool stores. 

4.2. Thermometer calibration

4.2.1. All thermometers should be checked when purchased.   All readings should be noted in a logbook. If the reading suddenly changes, return the thermometer to the supplier for checking. 

Rechecking/recalibration of electronic thermometers should be carried out monthly using an ice water slurry, which has a temperature of 0.0°C. A sample method for undertaking this calibration is: 

Pack chipped or flaked ice into a wide-mouthed vacuum flask and then fill the voids with iced water. Let it stand for 10 minutes and then insert the thermometer probe into the centre of the flask and record readings every minute until steady. Take at least 4 readings (Ideally distilled water should be used, however tap water is suitable provided it is of drinking quality). 

4.3. Produce temperature

4.3.1. The indicating thermometer on a cool store measures air temperature at the location of the sensor. It cannot indicate produce temperature, especially whilst produce is cooling. 

4.3.2. To obtain reliable produce temperatures, the sensing probe must be inserted into the flesh of the produce; pre-cool the probe before use by inserting into another sample of the same piece of fruit. 

4.3.3. Produce temperature will vary in packages within the one pallet, and from pallet to pallet, depending on the air circulation in the cool store and the stacking density of the pallets. Produce must be chosen from a number of pallets and at varying packing height locations to obtain temperature variability information. 

4.3.3. Temperature records of produce should be kept, covering the whole period from the time of harvest to the time of export. 

4.3.4. Records should be kept of the cooling rate achieved in each cool room. 

5. Temperature monitoring during transit

5. Temperature monitoring during transit

Temperature is considered to be measured and stated in Degrees Celsius ( °C ) for the purpose of this Code. Any variance from this practice must be highlighted to all parties in the chain to ensure that there is no misunderstanding. 

(See also "The use of thermocouples to monitor cargo temperatures in refrigerated freight containers and vehicles" in the Further Information section) 

5.1. The recorder on the refrigeration unit on older units records the temperature of the return air, but on some, particularly newer units record the temperature of the delivery air. The accuracy of the recording depends on the care taken during the pre-trip calibration and on any consequential rough handling (eg. container roughly handled). In a container with adequate air circulation, the temperature of the bulk of the produce is close to the return air temperature, providing the product has been pre-cooled to the desired carrying temperature. If the air circulation is inadequate or restricted, the bulk produce temperature may be at a higher temperature than the return air. As units now in service operate with delivery air control, then the recording of the return air temperature will show an increase of approximately +2°C higher then the delivery air temperature; if the unit operates under return air control, then the recording of the return air should be fairly constant. If the delivery air temperature is recorded, then the recorded temperature should be constant and is about 0.5 to 1.5°C below the bulk produce temperature. 

5.2. To obtain an independent record of temperature throughout transport, a self-contained, single-point temperature recorder may be placed in the container. The preferred location for the recorder is in the second package down, at the door end near the centre of the stow, and clearly marked with some form of highly visible marking to ensure retrieval on discharge. If the recorder is placed on top of the stow or attached to the ceiling, then the recording will not represent produce temperature but will give information on the performance of the refrigeration unit. Alternatively, a multi-point recorder may be used with temperature sensors placed in the produce as well as in the air. Some of these recorders allow interrogation of the recorded data from outside the container. 

5.3. Please also refer to 3.1.2. Some Containers are fitted with mechanical 31 day chart recorders but technology is rapidly moving towards controller and computer linked electronic data storage and recording and charts will become the exception rather than the rule. Modern integral containers are fitted with microprocessors capable of storing electronically, voyage information for up to 1 year, which in turn can be down loaded via a portable computer and reproduced in hard copy if required. Information that can be gathered in this manner includes supply and return air temperatures, set-point changes, alarm conditions, pre-trip condition, defrost frequencies etc. The units also have the capability of recording up to three remote sensors, with most having USDA approval for the recording of fruit temperatures in transit. For USDA and other quarantine cold treatment requirements, maximum pulp temperatures may have to be maintained below a specified temperature throughout a continuous period of days and only approved equipment may be used. 

5.4. To allow external monitoring, a thermocouple may be placed in a carton of produce within the stow. The monitored carton should be located in the top layer in the centre line of the container in the tier adjacent to the doors. For integral containers the leads should be taken out through the door seals with the loose material coiled and securely taped to a door handle on the right hand side door. 

CAUTION: The thermocouple lead must be laid into a floor channel along the length of the container leaving sufficient length to reach the selected carton prior to commencing container packing. 

More detailed information may be obtained by using several thermocouples. The use of external monitoring allows corrective action to be taken if a fault is found, in contrast to internal monitoring where a fault is discovered only at the end of the journey. However, care needs to be taken in interpreting measured temperatures and in any corrective action taken. eg. If the measured temperature of a carton in the top layer at the doors indicates that the carton is too warm, the set-point of the unit must not be reduced if there is no measurement of the coolest carton. 

5.5. Shippers should inform both the shipping company and the receivers, if they choose to install their own recording devices within the cargo.

6. Post harvest requirements for export produce

6. Post harvest requirements for export produce

6.1. Produce should be harvested at a maturity suitable for the intended market and pre-cooled rapidly without delay. The main pre-cooling techniques are forced-air, hydro-cooling and vacuum-cooling. A matter of considerable importance, which affects the ripening process of fruit & Vegetables, is the time delay between harvesting and transfer to an environment where this process can be controlled. The atmospheres in which fruits/Vegetables are kept or carried have a significant effect on the ripening process. Produce should be stored at the ideal temperature to avoid unnecessary water loss. Maintaining the produce at the correct temperature and humidity in storage can reduce dehydration of the produce. Dehydration of the commodity will be increased at higher temperatures. 

6.2. To avoid mechanical damage, handling procedures should be suited to the produce. Mechanical damage from compression, impacts and vibration can be reduced by correct handling methods and appropriate machinery.

6.3. Exporters should select produce which meets market requirements.

6.4. Where applicable, produce must be treated with recommended dips (e.g. chlorination) or other treatments at the appropriate temperature and concentration, and for the prescribed time and country of destination regulations. 

6.5. Ideally all produce should be packed in a temperature-controlled packing area. After packing, produce should be re-cooled rapidly, using rapid cooling methods and stored at the temperature recommended for long term storage and where appropriate, under correct CA conditions. However it must be noted that some fruit/vegetables suffer from cooling too rapidly. 

6.6. Core or produce temperature records should be kept on all produce, not just the indicated air temperature of the cold room. Thermometers and temperature recording equipment should be calibrated regularly. 

NOTE: Exporters are required to comply with Trade Description aspects of the Export Control (Fresh Fruit and Vegetables) Orders, 1987. Where fruit is being exported as Class 1, all produce is required to meet relevant standards contained in the Schedules to the above Orders. All Quality Assurance and 
Quality Management Systems are required to comply with government legislative requirements, although many businesses are now referring to specifications set in conjunction with their customers. These specifications may be similar to those detailed in the Schedules to the Export Control (Fresh 
Fruit and Vegetable) Orders. 

7. Packaging

7. Packaging 

For more information see 'Container and Pallet Stowage Recommendations for Export Horticultural Produce', Section 11: Further Information. 

7.1. Packages

7.1.1. Carton material should be of sufficient strength to withstand rough export handling conditions. The packaging must be able to support a stacking height of up to 2.5 metres (for 8’ 6” high containers) and 2.85 metres (for 9’ 6” high containers) and withstand humidity without collapsing. Carton blanks and erected cartons must be stored in accordance with manufacturer's instructions. Chilled produce unloaded in South East Asia (and other areas with similar weather conditions) inevitably becomes wet from condensation due to the high humidity in these countries. 

7.1.2. A carton should be formed carefully from the fibreboard blanks, according to manufacturer's instructions. Ensure the vent blanks are removed otherwise they may become dislodged and clog up the drain outlet. Clogged drain outlets can result in quality and out-turn problems. 

7.1 3. All packages must be clearly labelled with the appropriate trade description and bear the manufacturer’s statement, and in line with labelling requirements as laid down by the regulatory bodies of the importing countries. If local language is required on the label, ensure that the translation is accurate. 

7.1.4. Packages should not be over packed beyond the recommended weight. Any overfill of cartons should be kept to a minimum, and should be consistent between cartons, and should be such to ensure produce does not incur “pressure” damage during transit. Any bulging of cartons should be kept within acceptable limits. 

7.1.5. Where appropriate, pallet loads of cartons should be allowed to settle before loading.

7.1.6. Polystyrene boxes (eg. the 5 or 10 kg grape or broccoli box) must have integral lids, and be approved by the manufacturer for export under refrigeration.

7.1.7. The selection of packaging usually depends on product type and it may be advisable to ascertain whether there are existing designs, trialled and proven by other exporters that would suit the commodity.

7.1.8. Consideration should be given to the size of the packaging to improve utilisation of the container, without overfilling or restricting the airflow.

7.1.9. Although ventilation holes are usually made on the sides of the cartons, it must be borne in mind that air circulation is usually from beneath, so for optimal circulation, ventilation holes must be located at the top and bottom of the carton. Excessive ventilation may however lead to excessive weight loss, if additional wrapping or packaging is used within the cartons consideration must be given to the effect it will have on the ventilation process. 

Note: Packaging vents need to be aligned for adequate airflow. 

7.1.10. Dehydration of the produce can be reduced by utilising the appropriate packaging. 

7.1.11. Packaging material should be chosen not only for its durability during transport but also its ability to permit the removal of respiratory heat and other gases emitted by the produce (if required). 

7.2 Bulk bins

7.2.1. These bins are suitable only for produce able to be bulk stacked, e.g. apples. 

7.2.2. Custom size bins make better use of the available space. 

Bin sizes 1100 mm x 1100 mm and 1065 mm x 1065 mm and 1085 mm x 1117 mm (WA). 

7.3. Palletising

7.3.1. Packages should remain within the pallet dimensions (i.e. no overhang) to maintain stacking strength and stability as well as ease of stowing into the container. 

7.3.2. Euro-pallet 1200 mm x 1000 mm requires specifically designed cartons to maximise efficiency of use of the container volume (eg. 395 mm x 295 mm for the grape carton and 595 mm x 395 mm for the potted plant carton). 

7.3.3. Custom size pallets will make more efficient use of the container volume (eg. NZ pallet 1080 mm x 980 mm for integral containers).  Be aware pallet boards/slip sheets  etc may cause airflow restriction. 

7.3.4. Handling procedures at the point of import must be arranged. 

7.4. Slip sheets

These are technically feasible but no use has been made of them for horticultural produce. Some use has been made of them in the meat industry. 

If Slip Sheets are utilised, shippers should ensure that the airflow through the bottom channelling is not obstructed. Also slip sheets must end at the completion of the T-bar. 

7.5. Stabilising

7.5.1. Any stabilising method used must keep the pallet firmly together to ensure ease of stowing into the container. Stabilising may be achieved by using pallet adhesive, adhesive tape, stretch wrap, shrink-wrap, stretch netting, or strapping. Right angle corner supports, of metal, fibreboard or plastic, may be used in conjunction with any of the above methods. Stabilising methods must not restrict air circulation throughout the cargo stow.